Seminar in Vocal Pedagogy

Vowels

If resonance is what gives the properly registered tone its beauty and character, it is the vowel that gives it humanity and intelligence. The capacity to form vowels is among the few things that, biologically speaking, only humans are really capable of. Other animals can make distinguishable noises, and they may even function as language, but their variation lies more in pitch than in actual formant distinction. The broad palette of vowel colors available to the human voice is unparalleled in creation.

Some believe that vowels are formed primarily in the larynx, based on the fact that distinct arytenoid postures are observable among different vowels; chiefly this seems to pertain to the pressure exerted on the larynx (for instance, [] is known to produce more subglottic pressure than [] or []). Vennard argues, however, that vowel character seems to be at least as much formed by the buccopharyngeal resonator as the larynx (124).

Vennard broaches the subject of the relative pitch theory (which holds that the strength of the partials is always relative to the fundamental) and the fixed pitch, or formant, theory (which suggests that some part of an instrument will have a fixed pitch, which by sympathetic resonance will augment whatever partial in the tone is in tune with it). He suggests relationships between this theory and the Scripture's resonator theory; and the relative pitch theory seems to parallel Helmholtz's theory.

After brief introductions of the vowel triangle (where the five basic vowels are demonstrated to have either clustered/single formants or separated/double formants) and the effect on formants of the resonators, Vennard delves into separate studies on the mechanism of the two different types of formant. He notes first of all that [], the only vowel shared by both formant classes, "is nearest to the original glottal tone" (131). The vowels [] and [] are invariably formed with the tongue, and when following from the shared vowel [], we observe a shape change in the buccopharyngeal cavity as a result of the forward-moving arch of the tongue; there seems to be a correlation to "ring" and this vowel adjustment. Regarding the clustered (low-formant) vowels, Vennard demonstrates the phenomenon of formant pitch lowering with respect to a shrinking aperture--namely, the lips and jaw. He cautions that forming the vowels in the throat (as some have taught) tends to produce swallowing of the pitch. In any case, from [] up to [], there is a slight rise in the larynx; from [] to [], an opening of the mouth; and from [] to [], a rise in the arch of the tongue towards the teeth. He follows with a discussion on other vowels and their relationship to these basic vowels (134-135).

In his paragraphs on "long" and "short" vowels, Vennard introduces the quality of formant change in the vowels with respect to their stress, allowing for a pedagogical correlation between long/ short and tense/lax. An exception comes with the "dull" vowel [] (or "neutral" vowel), which seems to be a component of all vowels except [], particularly the clustered formants; to distinguish [] from its unstressed equivalent, [], an issue in speech, is not one in singing. To the issue of spreading, Vennard quotes Fritz Winckel as relating increasing numbers of produced overtones to the fault of "spreading," and the neutral vowel tends to produce more of the out-of-tune partials. Its counterpart [] (which he calls the "bad" vowel) functions in an inverse way to the separated formants. It takes a bit of "mixing" one into the other during singing to correct their respective formant issues.

After sections on developing consistency in the color of the vowels (which basically involves "thinking" in the vowel opposite in the vowel triangle to the one being sung) and their emotional connotations, Vennard diverts momentarily to discuss the pedagogical issue of resonance imagery. Basically he is dealing with the inability to communicate adequately to the student the purely scientific terminology that is otherwise perfectly legitimate. He warns against using such imagery in a haphazard kind of way, where images may be applied in an inconsistent manner. Scientifically speaking, none of it is accurate, but when used responsibly it has its place in the studio. Another tool, the "pear-shaped []," helps the student shape the vowel better if he imagines the stem at the teeth (and who eats the stem?), the smaller, upper part resting on the tongue, and the larger bottom of the fruit filling the back of the mouth.

Vennard then compares the concepts of focusing and covering. To the former, he offers two uses: first, to overcome breathiness; second, as a resonance concept of "forward placement," or brilliance (150). Excessive breath is eliminated to present the clear tone, like a picture coming into focus. Additionally, the tone will "ring" where the most energy is directed. Regarding covering, Vennard indicates that for higher notes, the use of a covered tone does not seem choked and muffled as it does in lower pitches. This passaggio covering is what Garcia called the voix mixte, and Marchesi used the terms interchangeably. The larynx is guaranteed to hold a low position, with the ventricles possibly opening up for additional resonance. Effective exercises involving crescendos from near falsetto to full-throated tones develop laryngeal coordination in handling both volume and pitch (154). Vennard cautions us, however, that covering can be misconstrued to mean that the larynx should be depressed, yielding a throaty tone devoid of focus. Lower tones sound nice and resonant, but upper tones will only be acceptable if they are bellowed. Soft singing becomes swallowed or breathy. It seems to him more advantageous to teach students to use a clear, focused tone to which he "can add plenty of 'opulence' as he continues to build his voice." Perhaps a better term, he posits, would be to think of darkening the voice in passaggio (157).

Miller is, as always, more pragmatic in his approach. He chooses to focus on precise, "model" vowel formation postures. The vowel [], as has been stated, helps the singer realize an unobstructed vocal tract, and is the foundation on which other vowels must be built to maintain articulatory flexibility. In agreement with Vennard, the correct [] rearranges resonator space in the buccal cavity, not diminish it. It is helpful for developing the full timbre of the voice. Along with [], Miller says [] puts the tongue in a position to "evoke sensations in the mask" for assistance in placement (71-72).

Miller raises an issue that Vennard is either unaware or unwilling to discuss: vowel modification. He argues that the ability to adjust a vowel in an ascending scale is the key to overcoming register demarcation (156). It is more important that the vowel be able to move around for optimum quality than be regarded as "stuck" in a particular buccopharyngeal posture throughout the scale. The most effective adjustment lies in the simple opening of the mouth, which raises the first formant frequency to enhance the fundamental, thus normalizing each vowel and each pitch (74). Pulling back the corners of the mouth effectively does the same thing; Vennard argues against this, but Miller places no restrictions.

Miller's research indicates covering, as it was dealt with in the historic Italian school, had less to do with "radical phonemic shift in vowel structure and mechanical adjustment in the pharynx," as Vennard seems to think, as it did with being able to adjust the acoustic postures of the vocal tract to define "vowels in any level of pitch" (155). This he refers to as the art of aggiustamento, a practice of relating one vowel to the next, either toward neutralization or away from it, with the subconscious intent of balancing the fundamental and overtones between them. This is what happens, for example to the [] vowel, which for balancing the upper partials of an ascending scale must modify towards [] (155-157). This "rounding" principle has more to do with modifying front vowels to back ones, not so much that they all neutralizing towards []. Refusal to modify vowels (indicative of "open singing") may be as hard on the voice as pushing heavy mechanism into the upper voice (158).

The goal here is to make the whole voice a unified whole; registration is an issue, but nothing, including vowels, must be allowed to indicate timbre demarcations (Miller, 150). The covered voice (voce coperta), according to Miller, is the key to realizing aggiustamento for producing high pitches. It is not the same as "covering," or "open voice," which introduces "heavy thyroarytenoid activity in parts of the vocal range where other muscle balances should prevail" (156), and is a poor technique employed by singers with light voices who try to sing more dramatic pieces. For this reason, Miller advocates the more specific language of vowel modification rather than telling the student to "cover" any vowel not being sung ideally. The result is the "closed voice" (voce chiusa),

a timbre that should prevail throughout the singing voice regardless of range (as opposed to open voice [voce aperta]) [in which] there is a stabilized laryngeal position--relatively low--and a somewhat widened pharynx. These conditions together with proper vowel modification (aggiustamento) produce the so-called "covered" sound of the upper range (151).

The open voice leaves an imbalanced instrument, and often produces "white voice" in the upper register, a result of depressing the larynx. Miller does not, however, advocate a high larynx. It must remain mostly stationary (with some ability to descend with inspiration), never moving for "either pitch or power, beyond the minimal requirements of vocal and consonant articulation" (153).

How much the pharynx can change shape and how far to depress the larynx is up for debate, but most teachers of singing seem to think it results from proper inhalation and maintenance of "the well-managed breath cycle." For most singers there will be an awareness of resonance within the larynx. Otherwise, there should be no attempt at "sensing" any activity. Miller holds that if you can feel it, it is no longer free (154).